List of Maps XXIV

List of Boxes XXVII

Books Related Interest XXX

Preface XXXI

Introduction XXXVII

Chapter 1 The First Civilizations

I. The Earliest Humans

Human Beings as Food Gatherers/Human Beings as Food Producers/Early Near Eastern Villages

II.The First Civilizations in Mesopotamia

The Emergence of Civilization/Sumer/The Babylonian Kingdom/Mesopotamian Culture

III.Egypt

The Old and Middle Kingdoms/The New Kingdom/A View of Egyptian Society

IV. Palestine

Canaanites and Phoenicians/Hebrew Society and the Bible/The Jewish Legacy

V.*The Early Indo-Europeans

The Hittite Kingdom/The Close of the Bronze Age

VI. The Near Eastern States

The Assyrian State/The Chaldeans and the Medes/The Persian Empire

Chapter 2 The Forming of Greek Civilizations

I.Crete and Early Greece (ca. 3000-1100 B.C.)

Cretan Civilization/Crete and the Greeks/Mycenaean Civilization (ca. 1600-1100 B.C.)

II.The Greek Renaissance (ca. 800-600 B.C.)

Greek Religion/Public Games/Colonization (ca. 750-550 B.C.)/The Alphabet/Archaic Literature

III.The Polis

Organization and Government/The Economy of the Poleis (ca. 700-400 B.C.)/Sparta and Athens (ca. 700-500 B.C.)

IV.The Challenge of Persia

The Invasion under Darius and Marathon (490 B.C.)/The Second Persian War (480-479 B.C.)

V.The Wars of the Fifth Century (479-404 B.C.)

The Athenian Empire/The Age of Pericles/The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.)

Chapter 3 Classical and Hellenistic Greece

I. Classical Greek Culture (ca. 500-323 B.C.)

Philosophy/Greek Tragedy/Comedy: Aristophanes/Historical Writing/The Family in Classical Greece

II. The Rise of Macedonia

Philip II of Macedonia/Alexander the Great

III. The Hellenistic Age (323-30 B.C.)

The Dissolution of Alexander’s Empire/The Economic Life/Literature, Art, and Science/Philosophy and Religion

Chapter 4 The Roman Republic

I. The Unification of Italy (to 264 B.C.)

The Geography of Italy/Early Rome/The Struggle of the Orders (494-287 B.C.)/Roman Society in the Republic/Early Expansion of Rome

II. The Age of Mediterranean Conquest (264-133 B.C.)

The Punic Wars/Expansion in the Eastern Mediterranean/The Nature of Roman Expansion

III. The Roman Revolution (133-27 B.C.)

Social Change and the Gracchi/The Years if the Warlords/The First Triumvirate/The Supremacy of Julius Caesar

IV. The End of the Roman Republic

The Second Triumvirate/Octavian Triumphant

V. The Founding of the Roman Empire

Augustus and the Principate/Augustus, the First Roman Emperor

Chapter 5 The Empire and Christianity

I. The Empire at Its Height

The Successors of Augustus/The Five Good Emperors/Roman Imperial Civilization

II. The Period of Crises

The Crisis of Leadership/Weaknesses in the Institution of Slavery/The Plight of the Poor

III. The Late Roman Empire

Restoration under Diocletian/Constantine and the Bureaucracy/The Decline of the Western Empire

IV. Christianity and Its Early Rivals

The Mystery Religions/The Jews in the Roman Empire/Origins of Christianity/Battles within Christianity/The Fathers of the Church

Chapter 6 The Making of Western Europe

I. The New Community of Peoples

The Great Migrations/Germanic Society/Germans and Romans

II. The New Political Structures

The Early Byzantine Empire/Justinian the Great (r. 527-650)/The Frankish Kingdom/Kingship in Italy and Spain/Anglo-Saxon England

III. The New Economy, 500-900

Agricultureal Innovations/Trade and Manufacture

IV. The Expansion of the Church

Origins of the Papacy/Monasticism/Missionaries and Popular Religion/The Church and Classical Learning

Chapter 7 The Empires of the Early Middle Ages (800-1000): Creation and Erosion

I. The Byzantine Empire (623-1071)

Strains on the Empire/Byzantine Government/The Two Churches/Byzantine Economy and Society/Byzantine Culture/Decline of the Byzantine Empire

II. Islam

The Arabs/Muhammad/The Religion of Islam/Expansion of Islam/Islamic Economy and Society/Islamic Culture/Decline of Medieval Islamic Civilization

III. The Carolingian, or Frankish, Empire

Charlemagne/Carolingian Government/The Carolingian Renaissance/Carolingian Society and Culture/Decline of the Carolingian Empire

IV. The Vikings, Kiev, and England

The Vikings/The Kievan Rus Principality/Anglo-Saxon England

Chapter 8 Restoration of an Ordered Society

I. Economic and Social Changes

Feudalism/Life of the Nobility/Manorialism/Peasant Life/Expansion of Europe/Commercial Expansion/Rebirth of Urban Life

II. Governments of Europe 1000-1150

Norman England/Capetian France/The German Empire

III. The Reform of the Western Church

The Church in Crisis/Monastic Reform/Papal Reform/Investiture Controversy/Consolidation on Papal Reform

IV. The Crusades

Origins/The Motives of the Crusaders/The First Crusade/The Kingdom of Jerusalem/The Later Crusades/Military-Religious Orders/Results of the Crusades

Chapter 9 The Flowering of Medieval Civilization

I. Cultural Developments

The Rise of Universities/Scholasticism/Spiritual Approaches to Knowledge/Romanesque Architecture/The Gothic Style/Court Culture

II. The States of Europe

England/France/The Iberian Kingdoms/Germany: The Holy Empire

III. The Church

The Growth of Heresy/The Suppression of Heresy/The Franciscans/Papal Government

Chapter 10 The Urban Economy and the Consolidation of States

I. Cities, Trade, and Commerce

Urban Government/The Organization of Crafts/The Guilds/Commercial Institutions/Sea Traffic/Urban Life

II. Monarchies and the Development of Representative Institutions

England and the Development of Parliament/France and the Consolidation of Rule/The Holy Empire and the Fragmentation of Rule

III.Government in the East

The Byzantine Empire/The Mongols/Muscovite Russia

IV. The Papacy and the Church

The Papacy/Lay Religious Observance

V. Learning and Literature

Philosophy/Dante

Chapter 11 Breakdown and Renewal in an Age of Plague

I. Population Catastrophes

Demographic Decline/Plague

II. Economic Depression and Recovery

Agricultural Specialization/Protectionism/Technological Advances/The Standard of Living

III. Popular Unrest

Rural Revolts/Urban Revolts/The Seeds of Discontent

IV. Challenges of the Governments of Europe

Roots of Political Unrest/The Nobility and Factional Strife/England, France, and the Hundred Years’ War/The Tides of the Battle/The Effectors of the Hundred Years’ War/The States of Italy

VI. The Fall of Byzantium and the Ottoman Empire

The Fall of Constantinople

Chapter 12 Tradition and Change in European Culture, 1300-1500

I. The New Learning

The Founding of Humanism/Humanism in the Fifteenth Century/The Florentine Neoplatonists/The Heritage of the New Learning

II. Art and the Artists in the Italian Renaissance

Three Friends/The High Renaissance/Status and Perception

III. The Culture of the North

Chivalry and Decay/Contemporary Views of Northern Society/Art and Music

IV. Scholastic Philosophy, Religious Thought, and Piety

The “Modern Way”/Social and Scientific Thought

V. The State of Christendom

Styles of Piety/Movements of Doctrinal Reform

Chapter 13 Reformations in Religion

I. Piety and Dissent

Doctrine and Reform/Causes of Discontent/Popular Religion/Piety and Protest in Literature and Art/Christian Humanism

II. The Lutheran Reformation

The Conditions for Change/Martin Luther/The Break with Rome/Lutheran Doctrine and Practice/The Spread of Lutheranism/Lutheranism Established

III. The Spread of Protestantism

Zwingli and the Radicals/Persecution of the Radicals/John Calvin/Calvinism/The Anglican Church

IV. The Catholic Revival

Strengths and Weaknesses/The Council of Trent/The Aftermath of Trent/Ignatius Loyola/Religion and Politics

Chapter 14 Economic Expansion and a New Politics

I. Expansion at Home

Population Increase/Economic Growth/Social Change

II. Expansion Overseas

The Portuguese/The Spaniards/The First Colonial Empire

III. The Centralization of Political Powers

Tudor England/Louis XI and Charles VIII/The Growth of Government Powers/United Spain/Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

IV. The Splintered States

V. The New Statecraft

New International Relations/Machiavelli and Guicciardini

Chapter 15 War and Crisis

I. Rivalry and War in the Age of Philip II

Elizabeth I of England/The Dutch Revolt/Civil War in France

II. From Unbounded War to International Crisis

The Thirty years’ War/The Peace of Westphalia

III. The Military Revolution

Weapons and Tactics/The Organization and Support of Armies/The Life of the Soldier

IV. Revolution in England

Pressures for Change/Parliament and Law/Rising Antagonisms/England Under Cromwell

V. Revolts in France and Spain

The France of Henry IV/Louis XIII/Political and Social Crisis/The Fronde/Sources of Discontent in Spain/Revolt and Secession

VI. Political Change in an Age of Crisis

The Unites Provinces/Sweden/Eastern Europe and the Crisis

Chapter 16 Culture and Society in the Age of the Scientific Revolution

I. Scientific Advance from Copernicus to Newton

Origins of the Scientific Revolution/The Breakthroughs/The Climax of the Scientific Revolution: Isaac Newton

II. The Effects of the Discoveries

The New Epistemology/Bacon and Descartes/Pascal’s Protest Against New Sciences/Science Institutionalized

III. The Arts and Literature

Unsettling Art/Unsettling Writers/The Return of Assurance to the Arts/Stability and Restraint in the Arts

V. Social Patterns and Popular Culture

Popular Trends/Social Status/Mobility and Crime/Changes in the Villages and Cities/Belief in Magic and Rituals/Forces of Restraint/Conclusion

Chapter 17 The Emergence of the European State System

I. Absolutism in France

The Rule of Louis XIV/Government/Foreign Policy/Domestic Policy/The End of an Era/France After Louis XIV

II. Other Patterns of Absolutism

The Habsburgs at Vienna/The Hohenzollerns at Berlin/Rivalry and State Building/The Prussia of Frederick William I/Frederick the Great/The Habsburg Empire/The Habsburgs and Bourbons at Madrid/Peter the Great at St. Petersburg

III. Alternatives to Absolutism

Aristocracy in the United Provinces, Sweden, and Poland/The Triumph of the Gentry in England/The Growth of Stability/Contrasts in Political Thought

IV. The International System

Diplomacy and Warfare/Armies and Navies/The Seven Years’ War

Chapter 18 The Wealth of Nations

I. Demographic and Economic Growth

The New Demographic Era/Profit Inflation: The Movement of Prices/Protoindustrialization

II. The New Shape of Industry

Towards a New Economic Order/The Roots of Economic Transformation in England/Cotton: The Beginning of Industrialization

III. Innovation and Tradition in Agriculture

Convertible Husbandry/The Enclosure Movement in Britain/Serf and Peasants on the Continent

IV. Eighteenth-Century Empires

Mercantile and Naval Competition/The Profits of Empire/Slavery, the Foundation of Empire/Mounting Colonial Conflicts/The British Foothold in India

Chapter 19 The Age of Enlightenment

I. The Enlightenment

The Broadening Reverberations of Science/Beyond Christianity/The Philosophies/Diderot and the Encyclopedia

II. Eighteenth-Century Elite Culture

Cosmopolitan High Culture/Publishing and Reading/Literature, Music and Art

III. Popular Culture

Popular Literature/Literacy and Primary Schooling/Sociability and Recreation

Chapter 20 The French Revolution

I. Reform and Political Crisis

Enlightened Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe/Joseph II and the Limits of Absolutism/Constitutional Crises in the West/Upheavals in the British Empire

II. 1789: The French Revolution

Origins of the Revolution/Fiscal Crisis and Political Deadlock/From the Estates General to the National Assembly/The Convergence of Revolutions

III. The Reconstruction of France

The New Constitution/The Revolution of the Church/Counterrevolution, Radicalism, and War

IV. The Second Revolution

The National Convention /The Revolutionary Crisis/The Jacobin Dictatorship/The Sans-culottes: Revolution From Below/The Revolutionary Wars

Chapter 21 The Age of Napoleon

I. From Robespierre to Bonoparte

The Thermidorian Reaction/The Directory/The Brumaire Coup

II. The Napoleonic Settlement in France

The Napoleonic Style/Political and Religious Settlements/The Era of the Notables

III. Napoleonic Hegemony in Europe

Military Supremacy and the Reorganization of Europe/Naval War with Britain/The Napoleonic Conscription Machine

IV. Opposition to Napoleon

The “Spanish Ulcer”/The Russian Debacle/German Resistance and the Last Coalition/The Napoleonic Legend

Chapter 22 Foundations of the Nineteenth Century: Politics and Social Change

I. The Politics of Order

The Congress of Vienna/The Pillars of the Restoration: Russia, Austria, Prussia/The Test of Restoration: Spain, Italy, and France

II. The Progress of Industrialization

The Technology to Support Machines/The Economic Effects of Revolution and War/Patterns of Industrialization

III. The Social Effects

The Division of Labor/The Family/The Standard of Living

Chapter 23 Learning to Live With Change

I. Ideas of Change

Romanticism/Social Thought/The Early Socialists

II. The Structure of Society

Social Classes/The Changing Populations/Social Welfare

III. The Spread of Liberal Government

Great Britain/The Revolutions of 1830

Chapter 24 National States and National Cultures

I. The Revolutions of 1848

The Opening Phase/The Final Dissensions/The Final Phase

II. The Politics of Nationalism

The Elements of Nationalism/A New Regime: The Second Empire in France/Nationalism and International Relations/A New Nation: The Unification of Italy/A New Nation: The Unification of Germany/Reshaping Old Empires

III. Nineteenth-Century Culture

The Organization of Culture/The Content of Culture

Chapter 25 European Power: Wealth, Knowledge, and Imperialism

I. The Economics of Growth

The Second Industrial Revolution/The Demographic Transition

II. The Knowledge of Nature and Society

The Conquests of Science/Social Science and Ideas of Progress

III. Europe and the World

The Apparent Decline of colonial Empires/Europe’s Growing Engagement Overseas

IV. Modern Imperialism

The Meaning of Imperialism/Explanations of Imperialism/Imperialism and European Society/Conquests of the New Imperialism

Chapter 26 The Age of Progress

I. The Belle Epoque

Popular Culture/“The Woman Question”/The Arts

II. Attacks on Liberal Civilization

Working Class Movements/The Christian Critique/Beyond Reason

III. Domestic Politics

Common Problems/France: The Third Republic/Germany: The Reich/Italy: The Liberal Monarchy/Russia: Defeat and Revolution/Austria-Hungary: The Delicate Balance/Spain: Instability and Loss of Empire/Great Britain: Heading Towards Democracy

Chapter 27 World War I and the War it Created

I. The Coming of World War

Bismarck’s System of Alliances/The Shifting Balance/The Outbreak of World War/The Origins of World War

II. The Course of the War

The Surprises of the First Two Years/Adjustment to Total War/The Great Trials of 1917-1918/The Effects of World War 1

III. The Peace

The Revolutionary Situation/The Peace Treaties

IV. Postwar Democracy

The New Governments/The Established Democracies/International Relations

Chapter 28 The Great Twentieth- Century Crisis

I. Two Successful Revolutions

Revolution in Russia/Towards a Communist Society/Italian Fascism

II. The Distinctive Culture of the Twentieth Century

Freudian Psychology/The Humanities/The Sciences/Public Culture

III. The Retreat from Democracy

Authoritarian Regimes/The Great Depression

IV. Nazi Germany and the USSR

Hitler’s Germany/Stalin’s Soviet Union

V. Democracies’ Weak Response

Divisive Social Change/The Argument for Liberty/Domestic Politics/The Failures of Diplomacy

Chapter 29 The Nightmare: World War II

I. The Years of Axis Victory

The Path to War/The Course of the War, 1939-1941

II. The Global War, 1942-1945

The Turn of the Tide/Competing Political Systems/Allied Strategy/The Road to Victory

III. Building on the Ruins

Immediate Crises/Europe Divided

IV. European Recovery

Economic Growth/New Political Directions/The International Context

Chapter 30 The New Europe

I. The New Institutions

Cautious Beginnings/Toward European Union

II. Postindustrial Society

Europe’s Advantage

III. The Politics of Prosperity

Waves of Protest/Capitalist Countries: The Challenge of Recession/Communist Rule: The Problem of Rigidity

IV. The End Of an Era

The Miracles of 1989/The Disintegration of the USSR/Europe Without Cold War

V. Contemporary Culture

Postwar Creativity/The Explosion of Popular Culture/Social Thought

Epilogue