Preface |
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xiii | |
Chapter 1 Introduction |
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3 | (14) |
Chapter 2 The Common Law Tradition |
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17 | (18) |
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A. Libel, Slander and Procedure |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (4) |
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25 | (10) |
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25 | (3) |
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28 | (3) |
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31 | (4) |
Chapter 3 U.S. Defamation Law and the New York Times Decision |
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35 | (42) |
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A. From the Framing to Garrison and New York Times: Early U.S. Libel Decisions |
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35 | (4) |
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36 | (1) |
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2. Defamation as Unprotected Speech |
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36 | (3) |
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B. The Constitutionalization of Defamation: New York Times Co. v. Sullivan |
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39 | (10) |
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39 | (4) |
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43 | (6) |
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C. Post-Sullivan Refinements |
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49 | (17) |
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1. Further Definition of the "Public Official" Concept |
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50 | (1) |
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2. The "Public Figure" Concept |
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51 | (2) |
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53 | (8) |
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4. Distinguishing "Public Figures" from Private Individuals |
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61 | (5) |
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D. Rejection of the "Public Interest" Standard |
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66 | (2) |
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E. Application of the "Actual Malice" Standard |
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68 | (6) |
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74 | (1) |
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75 | (2) |
Chapter 4 1990's Australian and English Developments |
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77 | (54) |
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A. The Australian Free Speech Decisions and Lange |
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77 | (13) |
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1. Pre-Lange Defamation Law |
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78 | (2) |
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2. The Theophanous Decision |
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80 | (2) |
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82 | (5) |
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4. Other Developments Related to the Law of Libel |
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87 | (2) |
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89 | (1) |
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B. Reynolds and the English Extension of Qualified Privilege |
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90 | (41) |
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1. Developments Pre-Reynolds |
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90 | (9) |
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2. The Reynolds Development |
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99 | (12) |
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3. Measuring Up to the Human Rights Act 1998 |
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111 | (9) |
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4. Other Developments Related to the Law of Libel |
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120 | (7) |
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120 | (4) |
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ii. Press Complaints Commission |
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124 | (3) |
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5. Conclusions Regarding Reynolds |
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127 | (4) |
Chapter 5 Interview Results: England and Australia Prior to Qualified Privilege Extensions |
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131 | (52) |
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A. Pre-Reynolds English Interviews |
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131 | (19) |
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1. The External Perception: England's Tabloid Press |
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131 | (7) |
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2. The English Interviews |
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138 | (12) |
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139 | (1) |
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ii. Post-Publication Suits and Threats of Suits |
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139 | (2) |
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141 | (1) |
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iv. Participation of Lawyers in the Editorial Process |
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141 | (1) |
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v. The Role of Lawyers and the "Legally Admissible Evidence" Standard |
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142 | (1) |
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vi. The Impact of the "Legally Admissible Evidence" Standard |
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143 | (1) |
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vii. Hypothetical English Watergate |
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144 | (2) |
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viii. Possible Effects of the English Standards—Cost-Benefit Calculations or More Balanced Reporting? |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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x. Ability to Report on Political Figures |
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148 | (1) |
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xi. The Role of Privileges for Reporting Parliaments and Courts |
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149 | (1) |
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xii. Ability to Report the Public Interest |
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150 | (1) |
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B. The Australian Interviews: Pre-Lange |
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150 | (30) |
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151 | (1) |
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2. The Rate of Defamation Litigation |
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152 | (3) |
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3. Responses to Threats of Suit: Pre-Publication |
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155 | (1) |
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4. Responses to Post-Publication Suits and Threats of Suits |
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156 | (2) |
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158 | (1) |
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6. The Motivations of Defamation Plaintiffs |
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159 | (2) |
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7. Participation of Lawyers in the Editorial Process |
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161 | (2) |
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8. The Role of Lawyers in the Editorial Process: Privileges and "Legally Admissible Evidence" |
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163 | (2) |
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9. The Impact of the "Legally Admissible Evidence" Standard on Reporting |
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165 | (4) |
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10. The Media and Particularly Litigious Individuals |
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169 | (4) |
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173 | (2) |
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12. Ability to Report the Public Interest |
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175 | (1) |
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13. A Hypothetical Australian "Watergate" |
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176 | (1) |
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14. Australia's Cost Rules |
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177 | (3) |
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C. Preliminary Conclusions: Regarding the Australian and English Media |
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180 | (3) |
Chapter 6 The American Interviews: The Impact of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan and the "Actual Malice Standard" |
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183 | (18) |
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A. Suits and Threats of Suit |
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185 | (3) |
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B. Responses to Suits and Threats of Suits: Pre-Publication |
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188 | (1) |
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C. Responses to Threats of Suits: Post-Publication |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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E. The Motivations of Defamation Plaintiffs |
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190 | (1) |
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F. Lawyers and the Editorial Process |
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190 | (1) |
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G. The Lawyer's Perspective in the Editorial Process |
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191 | (2) |
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H. Particularly Litigious Individuals |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (1) |
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J. Suits by Police and Governmental Officials |
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194 | (1) |
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195 | (1) |
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L. Ability to Report the Public Interest |
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195 | (4) |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (1) |
Chapter 7 Interview Results: Australia Following Extensions to Qualified Privilege |
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201 | (14) |
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201 | (3) |
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B. Lange: Immediate Effects |
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204 | (3) |
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207 | (6) |
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1. Impact on the Pace of Litigation |
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207 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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3. Suits by Police and Governmental Officials |
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209 | (1) |
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4. Lawyers and the Editorial Process |
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209 | (1) |
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5. Impact on Pre-Publication Advice |
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210 | (1) |
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6. Uncertainties about Lange's Meaning and Application |
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211 | (1) |
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7. Privileges and Legally Admissible Evidence |
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211 | (1) |
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8. Impact on the Media's View of "Extremely Litigious Individuals" |
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212 | (1) |
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9. The Continuing Impact of the Costs Rule |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (2) |
Chapter 8 Interview Results: Reynold's Impact on the English Media |
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215 | (28) |
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215 | (2) |
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B. The Rate of Defamation Litigation |
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217 | (2) |
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C. Responses to Threats of Suit: Pre-Publication |
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219 | (1) |
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D. Responses to Post-Publication Suits and Threats of Suits |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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F. The Motivations of Defamation Plaintiffs |
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221 | (1) |
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G. Participation of Lawyers in the Editorial Process |
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222 | (1) |
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H. Reynolds and the "Legally Admissible Evidence" Standard |
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223 | (3) |
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I. Ability to Report the Public Interest |
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226 | (1) |
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J. Concerns About Reynolds |
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227 | (6) |
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K. Reynolds and Particularly Litigious Individuals |
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233 | (1) |
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L. Suits by Governmental Officials |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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N. A Hypothetical English "Watergate" |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (3) |
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240 | (3) |
Chapter 9 Conclusions: Defamation, Free Speech and Reputation in Democratic Societies |
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243 | (50) |
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A. The Common Law Approach |
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245 | (1) |
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B. The New York Times "Actual Malice" Standard |
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246 | (20) |
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1. Does Sullivan Spawn Costly Litigation That Intrudes into Editorial Processes? |
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247 | (5) |
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2. Large Damage Claims and Large Awards |
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252 | (3) |
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3. Little Protection for Reputation |
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255 | (1) |
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4. An "Irresponsible" Media? |
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256 | (3) |
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5. Sullivan's Focus on Plaintiff's Status is Misdirected |
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259 | (6) |
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6. Conclusions about "Actual Malice" |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (6) |
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1. Is Litigation under Lange Complex and Intrusive? |
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267 | (3) |
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2. Cost Rules and Plaintiff and Defendant Legal Expertise |
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270 | (1) |
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3. A Focus on "Political Communication" not Plaintiff Status |
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271 | (1) |
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272 | (17) |
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1. Focus on the Public Interest |
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275 | (1) |
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2. Complexity and Uncertainty |
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276 | (1) |
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3. Regulation of the "Tone" of Allegations |
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277 | (3) |
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280 | (1) |
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5. Pre-Publication Restraints |
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281 | (1) |
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6. Conclusions about the Reynolds Approach |
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282 | (7) |
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E. Conclusion: A Final Tally and Alternative Approaches |
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289 | (4) |
Bibliography |
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293 | (12) |
Table of Cases |
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305 | (6) |
Index |
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311 | |