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Chapter 1 Introduction to Cells |
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1 | (36) |
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Cells Under the Microscope |
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1 | (8) |
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The Invention of the Light Microscope Led to the Discovery of Cells |
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2 | (1) |
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Cells, Organelles, and Even Molecules Can Be Seen Under the Microscope |
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3 | (6) |
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9 | (8) |
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The Nucleus Is the Information Store of the Cell |
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9 | (1) |
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Mitochondria Generate Energy from Food to Power the Cell |
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10 | (2) |
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Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight |
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12 | (1) |
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Internal Membranes Create Intracellular Compartments with Different Functions |
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13 | (2) |
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The Cytosol Is a Concentrated Aqueous Gel of Large and Small Molecules |
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15 | (1) |
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The Cytoskeleton Is Responsible for Cell Movements |
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16 | (1) |
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Unity and Diversity of Cells |
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17 | (17) |
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Cells Vary Enormously in Appearance and Function |
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19 | (2) |
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Living Cells All Have a Similar Basic Chemistry |
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21 | (1) |
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All Present-Day Cells Have Apparently Evolved from the Same Ancestor |
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21 | (1) |
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Bacteria Are the Smallest and Simplest Cells |
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22 | (3) |
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Molecular Biologists Have Focused on E. coli |
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25 | (1) |
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Giardia May Represent an Intermediate Stage in the Evolution of Eucaryotic Cells |
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25 | (1) |
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Brewer's Yeast Is a Simple Eucaryotic Cell |
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26 | (1) |
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Single-celled Organisms Can Be Large, Complex, and Fierce: The Protozoans |
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27 | (1) |
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Arabidopsis Has Been Chosen Out of 300,000 Species as a Model Plant |
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28 | (1) |
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The World of Animals Is Represented by a Fly, a Worm, a Mouse, and Homo Sapiens |
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29 | (2) |
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Cells in the Same Multicellular Organism Can Be Spectacularly Different |
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31 | (3) |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Chemical Components of Cells |
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37 | (42) |
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37 | (15) |
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Cells Are Made of Relatively Few Types of Atoms |
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38 | (1) |
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The Outermost Electrons Determine How Atoms Interact |
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39 | (3) |
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Ionic Bonds Form by the Gain and Loss of Electrons |
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42 | (1) |
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Covalent Bonds Form by the Sharing of Electrons |
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43 | (2) |
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There Are Different Types of Covalent Bonds |
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45 | (3) |
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Water Is the Most Abundant Substance in Cells |
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48 | (1) |
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Some Polar Molecules Form Acids and Bases in Water |
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49 | (3) |
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52 | (21) |
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A Cell Is Formed from Carbon Compounds |
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52 | (1) |
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Cells Contain Four Major Families of Small Organic Molecules |
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52 | (1) |
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Sugars Are Energy Sources for Cells and Subunits of Polysaccharides |
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53 | (2) |
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Fatty Acids Are Components of Cell Membranes |
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55 | (5) |
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Amino Acids Are the Subunits of Proteins |
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60 | (1) |
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Nucleotides Are the Subunits of DNA and RNA |
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61 | (4) |
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Macromolecules Contain a Specific Sequence of Subunits |
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65 | (4) |
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Noncovalent Bonds Specify the Precise Shape of a Macromolecule |
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69 | (3) |
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Noncovalent Bonds Allow a Macromolecule to Bind Other Selected Molecules |
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72 | (1) |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (5) |
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Chapter 3 Energy, Catalysis, and Biosynthesis |
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79 | (29) |
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Catalysis and the Use of Energy by Cells |
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79 | (15) |
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Biological Order Is Made Possible by the Release of Heat Energy from Cells |
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79 | (3) |
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Photosynthetic Organisms Use Sunlight to Synthesize Organic Molecules |
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82 | (1) |
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Cells Obtain Energy by the Oxidation of Biological Molecules |
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83 | (1) |
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Oxidation and Reduction Involve Electron Transfers |
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84 | (1) |
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Enzymes Lower the Barriers That Block Chemical Reactions |
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85 | (1) |
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How Enzymes Find Their Substrates: The Importance of Rapid Diffusion |
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86 | (3) |
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The Free-Energy Change for a Reaction Determines Whether It Can Occur |
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89 | (1) |
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The Concentration of Reactants Influences XXXG |
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89 | (4) |
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For Sequential Reactions, XXXG(0) Values Are Additive |
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93 | (1) |
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Activated Carrier Molecules and Biosynthesis |
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94 | (11) |
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The Formation of an Activated Carrier Is Coupled to an Energetically Favorable Reaction |
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95 | (1) |
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ATP Is the Most Widely Used Activated Carrier Molecule |
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96 | (1) |
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Energy Stored in ATP Is Often Harnessed to Join Two Molecules Together |
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97 | (1) |
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NADH and NADPH Are Important Electron Carriers |
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98 | (2) |
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There Are Many Other Activated Carrier Molecules in Cells |
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100 | (3) |
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The Synthesis of Biological Polymers Requires an Energy Input |
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103 | (2) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (2) |
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Chapter 4 How Cells Obtain Energy from Food |
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108 | (26) |
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The Breakdown of Sugars and Fats |
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108 | (17) |
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Food Molecules Are Broken Down in Three Stages to Produce ATP |
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108 | (2) |
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Glycolysis Is a Central ATP-producing Pathway |
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110 | (4) |
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Fermentations Allow ATP to Be Produced in the Absence of Oxygen |
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114 | (1) |
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Glycolysis Illustrates How Enzymes Couple Oxidation to Energy Storage |
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114 | (4) |
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Sugars and Fats Are Both Degraded to Acetyl CoA in Mitochondria |
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118 | (1) |
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The Citric Acid Cycle Generates NADH by Oxidizing Acetyl Groups to CO(2) |
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119 | (5) |
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Electron Transport Drives the Synthesis of the Majority of the ATP in Most Cells |
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124 | (1) |
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Storing and Utilizing Food |
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125 | (4) |
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Organisms Store Food Molecules in Special Reservoirs |
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125 | (2) |
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Many Biosynthetic Pathways Begin with Glycolysis or the Citric Acid Cycle |
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127 | (1) |
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Metabolism Is Organized and Regulated |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (4) |
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Chapter 5 Protein Structure and Function |
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134 | (50) |
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The Shape and Structure of Proteins |
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134 | (20) |
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The Shape of a Protein Is Specified by Its Amino Acid Sequence |
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134 | (5) |
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Proteins Fold into a Conformation of Lowest Energy |
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139 | (1) |
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Proteins Come in a Wide Variety of Complicated Shapes |
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140 | (1) |
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The XXX Helix and the XXX Sheet Are Common Folding Patterns |
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141 | (4) |
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Proteins Have Several Levels of Organization |
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145 | (2) |
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Few of the Many Possible Polypeptide Chains Will Be Useful |
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147 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Be Classified into Families |
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147 | (1) |
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Larger Protein Molecules Often Contain More Than One Polypeptide Chain |
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148 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Assemble into Filaments, Sheets, or Spheres |
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149 | (3) |
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A Helix Is a Common Structural Motif in Biological Structures |
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152 | (1) |
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Some Types of Proteins Have Elongated Fibrous Shapes |
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152 | (2) |
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Extracellular Proteins Are Often Stabilized by Covalent Cross-Linkages |
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154 | (1) |
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154 | (25) |
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Proteins Bind to Other Molecules |
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155 | (1) |
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The Binding Sites of Antibodies Are Especially Versatile |
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156 | (1) |
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Binding Strength Is Measured by the Equilibrium Constant |
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157 | (10) |
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Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts |
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167 | (1) |
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Lysozyme Illustrates How an Enzyme Works |
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167 | (2) |
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V(max) and K(M) Measure Enzyme Performance |
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169 | (2) |
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Tightly Bound Small Molecules Add Extra Functions to Proteins |
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171 | (1) |
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The Catalytic Activities of Enzymes Are Regulated |
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172 | (1) |
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Allosteric Enzymes Have Two Binding Sites That Interact |
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173 | (1) |
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A Conformational Change Can Be Driven by Protein Phosphorylation |
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174 | (2) |
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GTP-binding Proteins Can Undergo Dramatic Conformational Changes |
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176 | (1) |
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Motor Proteins Produce Large Movements in Cells |
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176 | (2) |
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Proteins Often Form Large Complexes That Function as Protein Machines |
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178 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (4) |
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184 | (28) |
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The Structure and Function of DNA |
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184 | (5) |
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185 | (1) |
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A DNA Molecule Consists of Two Complementary Chains of Nucleotides |
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185 | (3) |
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The Structure of DNA Provides a Mechanism for Heredity |
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188 | (1) |
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189 | (9) |
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DNA Synthesis Begins at Replication Origins |
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190 | (1) |
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New DNA Synthesis Occurs at Replication Forks |
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191 | (2) |
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The Replication Fork Is Asymmetrical |
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193 | (1) |
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DNA Polymerase Is Self-correcting |
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194 | (1) |
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Short Lengths of RNA Act as Primers for DNA Synthesis |
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194 | (2) |
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Proteins at a Replication Fork Cooperate to Form a Replication Machine |
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196 | (2) |
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198 | (8) |
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Changes in DNA Are the Cause of Mutations |
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198 | (2) |
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A DNA Mismatch Repair System Removes Replication Errors That Escape from the Replication Machine |
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200 | (1) |
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DNA Is Continually Suffering Damage in Cells |
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201 | (1) |
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The Stability of Genes Depends on DNA Repair |
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202 | (3) |
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The High Fidelity with Which DNA Is Maintained Means That Closely Related Species Have Proteins with Very Similar Sequences |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (1) |
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207 | (5) |
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Chapter 7 From DNA to Protein |
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212 | (34) |
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212 | (12) |
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Portions of DNA Sequence Are Transcribed into RNA |
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212 | (1) |
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Transcription Produces RNA Complementary to One Strand of DNA |
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213 | (2) |
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Several Types of RNA Are Produced in Cells |
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215 | (1) |
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Signals in DNA Tell RNA Polymerase Where to Start and Finish |
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216 | (2) |
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Eucaryotic RNAs Undergo Processing in the Nucleus |
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218 | (1) |
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Eucaryotic Genes Are Interrupted by Noncoding Sequences |
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219 | (1) |
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Introns Are Removed by RNA Splicing |
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220 | (2) |
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mRNA Molecules Are Eventually Degraded by the Cell |
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222 | (1) |
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The Earliest Cells May Have Had Introns in Their Genes |
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223 | (1) |
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224 | (10) |
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An mRNA Sequence Is Decoded in Sets of Three Nucleotides |
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224 | (1) |
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tRNA Molecules Match Amino Acids to Codons in mRNA |
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225 | (2) |
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Specific Enzymes Couple tRNAs to the Correct Amino Acid |
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227 | (1) |
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The RNA Message Is Decoded on Ribosomes |
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227 | (3) |
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Codons in mRNA Signal Where to Start and to Stop Protein Synthesis |
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230 | (2) |
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Proteins Are Made on Polyribosomes |
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232 | (1) |
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Carefully Controlled Protein Breakdown Helps Regulate the Amount of Each Protein in a Cell |
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232 | (2) |
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There Are Many Steps Between DNA and Protein |
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234 | (1) |
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RNA and the Origins of Life |
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234 | (6) |
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Simple Biological Molecules Can Form Under Prebiotic Conditions |
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235 | (2) |
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RNA Can Both Store Information and Catalyze Chemical Reactions |
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237 | (2) |
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RNA Is Thought to Predate DNA in Evolution |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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241 | (5) |
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Chapter 8 Chromosomes and Gene Regulation |
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246 | (32) |
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The Structure of Eucaryotic Chromosomes |
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246 | (11) |
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Eucaryotic DNA Is Packaged into Chromosomes |
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246 | (1) |
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Chromosomes Exist in Different States Throughout the Life of a Cell |
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247 | (2) |
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Specialized DNA Sequences Ensure That Chromosomes Replicate Efficiently |
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249 | (1) |
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Nucleosomes Are the Basic Units of Chromatin Structure |
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250 | (2) |
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Chromosomes Have Several Levels of DNA Packing |
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252 | (1) |
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Interphase Chromosomes Contain Both Condensed and More Extended Forms of Chromatin |
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253 | (3) |
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Position Effects on Gene Expression Reveal Differences in Interphase Chromosome Packing |
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256 | (1) |
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Interphase Chromosomes Are Organized Within the Nucleus |
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256 | (1) |
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257 | (17) |
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Cells Regulate the Expression of Their Genes |
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258 | (1) |
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Transcription Is Controlled by Proteins Binding to Regulatory DNA Sequences |
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259 | (2) |
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Repressors Turn Genes Off and Activators Turn Them On |
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261 | (2) |
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Initiation of Eucaryotic Gene Transcription Is a Complex Process |
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263 | (1) |
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Eucaryotic RNA Polymerase Requires General Transcription Factors |
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264 | (1) |
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Eucaryotic Gene Regulatory Proteins Control Gene Expression from a Distance |
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265 | (1) |
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Packing of Promoter DNA into Nucleosomes Can Affect Initiation of Transcription |
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266 | (1) |
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Eucaryotic Genes Are Regulated by Combinations of Proteins |
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267 | (1) |
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The Expression of Different Genes Can Be Coordinated by a Single Protein |
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268 | (1) |
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Combinatorial Control Can Create Different Cell Types |
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269 | (2) |
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Stable Patterns of Gene Expression Can Be Transmitted to Daughter Cells |
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271 | (2) |
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The Formation of an Entire Organ Can Be Triggered by a Single Gene Regulatory Protein |
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273 | (1) |
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274 | (1) |
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275 | (3) |
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Chapter 9 Genetic Variation |
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278 | (37) |
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Genetic Variation in Bacteria |
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278 | (13) |
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The Rapid Rate of Bacterial Division Means That Mutation Will Occur Over a Short Time Period |
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279 | (1) |
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Mutation in Bacteria Can Be Selected by a Change in Environmental Conditions |
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280 | (1) |
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Bacterial Cells Can Acquire Genes from Other Bacteria |
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281 | (1) |
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Bacterial Genes Can Be Transferred by a Process Called Bacterial Mating |
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282 | (2) |
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Some Bacteria Can Take Up DNA from Their Surroundings |
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284 | (1) |
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Gene Exchange Occurs by Homologous Recombination Between Two DNA Molecules of Similar Nucleotide Sequence |
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285 | (3) |
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Genes Can Be Transferred Between Bacteria by Bacterial Viruses |
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288 | (1) |
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Transposable Elements Create Genetic Diversity |
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289 | (2) |
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Sources of Genetic Change in Eucaryotic Genomes |
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291 | (13) |
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Random DNA Duplications Create Families of Related Genes |
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292 | (1) |
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Genes Encoding New Proteins Can Be Created by the Recombination of Exons |
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293 | (1) |
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A Large Part of the DNA of Multicellular Eucaryotes Consists of Repeated, Noncoding Sequences |
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294 | (1) |
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About 10% of the Human Genome Consists of Two Families of Transposable Sequences |
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295 | (1) |
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The Evolution of Genomes Has Been Accelerated by Transposable Elements |
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296 | (1) |
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Viruses Are Fully Mobile Genetic Elements That Can Escape from Cells |
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297 | (3) |
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Retroviruses Reverse the Normal Flow of Genetic Information |
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300 | (2) |
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Retroviruses That Have Picked Up Host Genes Can Make Cells Cancerous |
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302 | (2) |
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Sexual Reproduction and the Reassortment of Genes |
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304 | (5) |
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Sexual Reproduction Gives a Competitive Advantage to Organisms in an Unpredictably Variable Environment |
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304 | (1) |
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Sexual Reproduction Involves Both Diploid and Haploid Cells |
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305 | (1) |
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Meiosis Generates Haploid Cells from Diploid Cells |
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306 | (1) |
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Meiosis Generates Enormous Genetic Variation |
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307 | (2) |
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309 | (1) |
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310 | (5) |
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Chapter 10 DNA Technology |
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315 | (33) |
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How DNA Molecules Are Analyzed |
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315 | (5) |
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Restriction Nucleases Cut DNA Molecules at Specific Sites |
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315 | (2) |
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Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA Fragments of Different Sizes |
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317 | (3) |
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The Nucleotide Sequence of DNA Fragments Can Be Determined |
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320 | (1) |
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Nucleic Acid Hybridization |
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320 | (4) |
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DNA Hybridization Facilitates the Prenatal Diagnosis of Genetic Diseases |
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321 | (2) |
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In Situ Hybridization Locates Nucleic Acid Sequences in Cells or on Chromosomes |
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323 | (1) |
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324 | (11) |
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DNA Ligase Joins DNA Fragments Together to Produce a Recombinant DNA Molecule |
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325 | (1) |
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Bacterial Plasmids Can Be Used to Clone DNA |
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326 | (1) |
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Human Genes Are Isolated by DNA Cloning |
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327 | (2) |
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cDNA Libraries Represent the mRNA Produced by a Particular Tissue |
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329 | (2) |
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Hybridization Allows Even Distantly Related Genes to Be Identified |
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331 | (1) |
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The Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplifies Selected DNA Sequences |
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332 | (3) |
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335 | (7) |
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Completely Novel DNA Molecules Can Be Constructed |
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335 | (2) |
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Rare Cellular Proteins Can Be Made in Large Amounts Using Cloned DNA |
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337 | (1) |
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RNAs Can Be Produced by Transcription in Vitro |
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338 | (1) |
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Mutant Organisms Best Reveal the Function of a Gene |
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339 | (1) |
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Transgenic Animals Carry Engineered Genes |
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340 | (2) |
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342 | (1) |
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343 | (5) |
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Chapter 11 Membrane Structure |
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348 | (24) |
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348 | (9) |
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Membrane Lipids Form Bilayers in Water |
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349 | (3) |
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The Lipid Bilayer Is a Two-dimensional Fluid |
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352 | (1) |
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The Fluidity of a Lipid Bilayer Depends on Its Composition |
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353 | (1) |
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The Lipid Bilayer Is Asymmetrical |
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354 | (1) |
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Lipid Asymmetry Is Generated Inside the Cell |
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355 | (1) |
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Lipid Bilayers Are Impermeable to Solutes and Ions |
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356 | (1) |
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357 | (11) |
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Membrane Proteins Associate with the Lipid Bilayers in Various Ways |
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358 | (1) |
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A Polypeptide Chain Usually Crosses the Bilayer as an XXX Helix |
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358 | (2) |
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Membrane Proteins Can Be Solubilized in Detergents and Purified |
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360 | (1) |
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The Complete Structure Is Known for Very Few Membrane Proteins |
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361 | (2) |
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The Plasma Membrane Is Reinforced by the Cell Cortex |
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363 | (1) |
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The Cell Surface Is Coated with Carbohydrate |
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364 | (2) |
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Cells Can Restrict the Movement of Membrane Proteins |
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366 | (2) |
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368 | (1) |
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368 | (5) |
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Chapter 12 Membrane Transport |
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372 | (37) |
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The Ion Concentrations Inside a Cell Are Very Different from Those Outside |
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372 | (1) |
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Carrier Proteins and Their Functions |
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373 | (12) |
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Solutes Cross Membranes by Passive or Active Transport |
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375 | (1) |
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Electrical Forces as Well as Concentration Gradients Can Drive Passive Transport |
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375 | (2) |
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Active Transport Moves Solutes Against Their Electrochemical Gradients |
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377 | (1) |
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Animal Cells Use the Energy of ATP Hydrolysis to Pump Out Na+ |
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378 | (1) |
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The Na(+)-K(+) Pump Is Driven by the Transient Addition of a Phosphate Group |
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379 | (1) |
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Animal Cells Use the Na(+) Gradient to Take Up Nutrients Actively |
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380 | (1) |
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The Na(+)-K(+) Pump Helps Maintain the Osmotic Balance of Animal Cells |
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381 | (2) |
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Intracellular Ca(2+) Concentrations Are Kept Low by Ca(2+) Pumps |
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383 | (1) |
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H(+) Gradients Are Used to Drive Membrane Transport in Plants, Fungi, and Bacteria |
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384 | (1) |
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Ion Channels and the Membrane Potential |
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385 | (9) |
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Ion Channels Are Ion Selective and Gated |
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386 | (2) |
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Ion Channels Randomly Snap Between Open and Closed States |
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388 | (2) |
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Voltage-gated Ion Channels Respond to the Membrane Potential |
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390 | (1) |
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The Membrane Potential Is Governed by Membrane Permeability to Specific Ions |
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391 | (3) |
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Ion Channels and Signaling in Nerve Cells |
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394 | (10) |
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Action Potentials Provide for Rapid Long-Distance Communication |
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395 | (1) |
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Action Potentials Are Usually Mediated by Voltage-gated Na(+) Channels |
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395 | (2) |
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Voltage-gated Ca(2+) Channels Convert Electrical Signals into Chemical Signals at Nerve Terminals |
|
|
397 | (2) |
|
Transmitter-gated Channels in Target Cells Convert Chemical Signals Back into Electrical Signals |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
Neurons Receive Both Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Synaptic Connections Enable You to Think, Act, and Remember |
|
|
401 | (3) |
|
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
|
|
405 | (4) |
|
Chapter 13 Energy Generation in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
|
|
409 | (39) |
|
Cells Obtain Most of Their Energy by a Membrane-based Mechanism |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
Mitochondria and Oxidative Phosphorylation |
|
|
410 | (11) |
|
A Mitochondrion Contains Two Membrane-bounded Compartments |
|
|
411 | (2) |
|
High-Energy Electrons Are Generated via the Citric Acid Cycle |
|
|
413 | (1) |
|
Electrons Are Transferred Along a Chain of Proteins in the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
Electron Transport Generates a Proton Gradient Across the Membrane |
|
|
415 | (2) |
|
The Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis |
|
|
417 | (2) |
|
Coupled Transport Across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane Is Driven by the Electrochemical Proton Gradient |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Proton Gradients Produce Most of the Cell's ATP |
|
|
419 | (2) |
|
The Rapid Conversion of ADP to ATP in Mitochondria Maintains a High ATP:ADP Ratio in Cells |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Electron-Transport Chains and Proton Pumping |
|
|
421 | (9) |
|
Protons Are Readily Moved by the Transfer of Electrons |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
The Redox Potential Is a Measure of Electron Affinities |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
Electron Transfers Release Large Amounts of Energy |
|
|
423 | (2) |
|
Metals Tightly Bound to Proteins Form Versatile Electron Carriers |
|
|
425 | (2) |
|
Protons Are Pumped Across the Membrane by the Three Respiratory Enzyme Complexes |
|
|
427 | (2) |
|
Respiration Is Amazingly Efficient |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis |
|
|
430 | (9) |
|
Chloroplasts Resemble Mitochondria but Have an Extra Compartment |
|
|
430 | (2) |
|
Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight and Use It to Fix Carbon |
|
|
432 | (1) |
|
Excited Chlorophyll Molecules Funnel Energy into a Reaction Center |
|
|
433 | (1) |
|
Light Energy Drives the Synthesis of ATP and NADPH |
|
|
434 | (2) |
|
Carbon Fixation Is Catalyzed by Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase |
|
|
436 | (2) |
|
Carbon Fixation in Chloroplasts Generates Sucrose and Starch |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
The Genetic Systems of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Reflect Their Procaryotic Origin |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
Our Single-celled Ancestors |
|
|
439 | (4) |
|
RNA Sequences Reveal Evolutionary History |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
Ancient Cells Probably Arose in Hot Environments |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
Methanococcus Lives in the Dark, Using Only Inorganic Materials as Food |
|
|
441 | (2) |
|
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
|
|
444 | (4) |
|
Chapter 14 Intracellular Compartments and Transport |
|
|
448 | (34) |
|
Membrane-bounded Organelles |
|
|
448 | (4) |
|
Eucaryotic Cells Contain a Basic Set of Membrane-bounded Organelles |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
Membrane-bounded Organelles Evolved in Different Ways |
|
|
450 | (2) |
|
|
|
452 | (10) |
|
Proteins Are Imported into Organelles by Three Mechanisms |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Signal Sequences Direct Proteins to the Correct Compartment |
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
Proteins Enter the Nucleus Through Nuclear Pores |
|
|
455 | (2) |
|
Proteins Unfold to Enter Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Proteins Enter the Endoplasmic Reticulum While Being Synthesized |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Soluble Proteins Are Released into the ER Lumen |
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
Start and Stop Signals Determine the Arrangement of a Transmembrane Protein in the Lipid Bilayer |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
|
|
462 | (5) |
|
Transport Vesicles Carry Soluble Proteins and Membrane Between Compartments |
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
Vesicle Budding Is Driven by the Assembly of a Protein Coat |
|
|
463 | (2) |
|
The Specificity of Vesicle Docking Depends on SNAREs |
|
|
465 | (2) |
|
|
|
467 | (5) |
|
Most Proteins Are Covalently Modified in the ER |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
Exit from the ER Is Controlled to Ensure Protein Quality |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
Proteins Are Further Modified and Sorted in the Golgi Apparatus |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
Secretory Proteins Are Released from the Cell by Exocytosis |
|
|
470 | (2) |
|
|
|
472 | (6) |
|
Specialized Phagocytic Cells Ingest Large Particles |
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
Fluid and Macromolecules Are Taken Up by Pinocytosis |
|
|
473 | (1) |
|
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis Provides a Specific Route into Animal Cells |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
Endocytosed Macromolecules Are Sorted in Endosomes |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
Lysosomes Are the Principal Sites of Intracellular Digestion |
|
|
476 | (2) |
|
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
|
|
479 | (3) |
|
Chapter 15 Cell Communication |
|
|
482 | (32) |
|
General Principles of Cell Signaling |
|
|
482 | (11) |
|
Signals Can Act over Long or Short Range |
|
|
482 | (2) |
|
Each Cell Responds to a Limited Set of Signals |
|
|
484 | (2) |
|
Receptors Relay Signals via Intracellular Signaling Pathways |
|
|
486 | (2) |
|
Some Signal Molecules Can Cross the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
Nitric Oxide Can Enter Cells to Activate Enzymes Directly |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
There Are Three Main Classes of Cell-Surface Receptors |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
Ion-Channel-linked Receptors Convert Chemical Signals into Electrical Ones |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
Intracellular Signaling Cascades Act as a Series of Molecular Switches |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
G-Protein-linked Receptors |
|
|
493 | (11) |
|
Stimulation of G-Protein-linked Receptors Activates G-Protein Subunits |
|
|
493 | (2) |
|
Some G Proteins Regulate Ion Channels |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
Some G Proteins Activate Membrane-bound Enzymes |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
The Cyclic AMP Pathway Can Activate Enzymes and Turn On Genes |
|
|
497 | (2) |
|
The Pathway Through Phospholipase C Results in a Rise in Intracellular Ca(2+) |
|
|
499 | (2) |
|
A Ca(2+) Signal Triggers Many Biological Processes |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
Intracellular Signaling Cascades Can Achieve Astonishing Speed, Sensitivity, and Adaptability: Photoreceptors in the Eye |
|
|
502 | (2) |
|
|
|
504 | (6) |
|
Activated Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Assemble a Complex of Intracellular Signaling Proteins |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Activate the GTP-binding Protein Ras |
|
|
506 | (2) |
|
Protein Kinase Networks Integrate Information to Control Complex Cell Behaviors |
|
|
508 | (2) |
|
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
|
|
511 | (3) |
|
|
|
514 | (35) |
|
|
|
514 | (4) |
|
Intermediate Filaments Are Strong and Durable |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
Intermediate Filaments Strengthen Cells Against Mechanical Stress |
|
|
516 | (2) |
|
|
|
518 | (11) |
|
Microtubules Are Hollow Tubes with Structurally Distinct Ends |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
Microtubules Are Maintained by a Balance of Assembly and Disassembly |
|
|
519 | (2) |
|
The Centrosome Is the Major Microtubule-organizing Center in Animal Cells |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
Growing Microtubules Show Dynamic Instability |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
Microtubules Organize the Interior of the Cell |
|
|
523 | (2) |
|
Motor Proteins Drive Intracellular Transport |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
Organelles Move Along Microtubules |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
Cilia and Flagella Contain Stable Microtubules Moved by Dynein |
|
|
527 | (2) |
|
|
|
529 | (14) |
|
Actin Filaments Are Thin and Flexible |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Actin and Tubulin Polymerize by Similar Mechanisms |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
Many Proteins Bind to Actin and Modify Its Properties |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
Actin-rich Cortex Underlines the Plasma Membrane of Most Eucaryotic Cells |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Cell Crawling Depends on Actin |
|
|
533 | (3) |
|
Actin Associates with Myosin to Form Contractile Structures |
|
|
536 | (2) |
|
During Muscle Contraction Actin Filaments Slide Against Myosin Filaments |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Muscle Contraction Is Triggered by a Sudden Rise in Ca(2+) |
|
|
539 | (4) |
|
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
|
|
544 | (5) |
|
|
|
549 | (23) |
|
Overview of the Cell Cycle |
|
|
549 | (3) |
|
The Eucaryotic Cell Cycle Is Divided into Four Phases |
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
The Cytoskeleton Carries Out Both Mitosis and Cytokinesis |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
Some Organelles Fragment at Mitosis |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
|
|
552 | (8) |
|
The Mitotic Spindle Starts to Assemble in Prophase |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
Chromosomes Attach to the Mitotic Spindle at Prometaphase |
|
|
553 | (4) |
|
Chromosomes Line Up at the Spindle Equator at Metaphase |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Daughter Chromosomes Segregate at Anaphase |
|
|
557 | (2) |
|
The Nuclear Envelope Re-forms at Telophase |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
|
|
560 | (3) |
|
The Mitotic Spindle Determines the Plane of Cytoplasmic Cleavage |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
The Contractile Ring of Animal Cells Is Made of Actin and Myosin |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells Involves New Cell-Wall Formation |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
|
|
563 | (4) |
|
Homologous Chromosomes Pair Off During Meiosis |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
Meiosis Involves Two Cell Divisions Rather Than One |
|
|
564 | (3) |
|
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
|
|
568 | (4) |
|
Chapter 18 Cell-Cycle Control and Cell Death |
|
|
572 | (22) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System |
|
|
572 | (10) |
|
A Central Control System Triggers the Major Processes of the Cell Cycle |
|
|
572 | (2) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System Is Based on Cyclically Activated Protein Kinases |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
MPF Is the Cyclin-Cdk Complex That Controls Entry into M Phase |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Cyclin-dependent Protein Kinases Are Regulated by the Accumulation and Destruction of Cyclin |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
The Activity of Cdks Is Further Regulated by Their Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Different Cyclin-Cdk Complexes Trigger Different Steps in the Cell Cycle |
|
|
578 | (2) |
|
The Cell Cycle Can Be Halted in G(1) by Cdk Inhibitor Proteins |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
Cells Can Dismantle Their Control System and Withdraw from the Cell Cycle |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
Control of Cell Numbers in Multicellular Organisms |
|
|
582 | (7) |
|
Cell Proliferation Depends on Signals from Other Cells |
|
|
582 | (2) |
|
Animal Cells Have a Built-in Limitation on the Number of Times They Will Divide |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
Animal Cells Require Signals from Other Cells to Avoid Programmed Cell Death |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
Programmed Cell Death Is Mediated by an Intracellular Proteolytic Cascade |
|
|
585 | (2) |
|
Cancer Cells Disobey the Social Controls on Cell Proliferation and Survival |
|
|
587 | (2) |
|
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (4) |
|
|
|
594 | |
|
Extracellular Matrix and Connective Tissues |
|
|
594 | (11) |
|
Plant Cells Have Tough External Walls |
|
|
594 | (2) |
|
Cellulose Fibers Give the Plant Cell Wall Its Tensile Strength |
|
|
596 | (4) |
|
Animal Connective Tissues Consist Largely of Extracellular Matrix |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
Collagen Provides Tensile Strength in Animal Connective Tissues |
|
|
600 | (2) |
|
Cells Organize the Collagen That They Secrete |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
Integrins Couple the Matrix Outside a Cell to the Cytoskeleton Inside It |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
Gels of Polysaccharide and Protein Fill Spaces and Resist Compression |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
Epithelial Sheets and Cell-Cell Junctions |
|
|
605 | (8) |
|
Epithelial Sheets Are Polarized and Rest on a Basal Lamina |
|
|
606 | (1) |
|
Tight Junctions Make an Epithelium Leak-proof and Separate Its Apical and Basal Surfaces |
|
|
607 | (2) |
|
Cytoskeleton-linked Junctions Bind Epithelial Cells Robustly to One Another and to the Basal Lamina |
|
|
609 | (3) |
|
Gap Junctions Allow Ions and Small Molecules to Pass from Cell to Cell |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
Tissue Maintenance and Renewal, and Its Disruption by Cancer |
|
|
613 | (8) |
|
Different Tissues Are Renewed at Different Rates |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
Stem Cells Generate a Continuous Supply of Terminally Differentiated Cells |
|
|
615 | (3) |
|
Mutations in a Single Dividing Cell Can Cause It and Its Progeny to Violate the Normal Controls |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
Cancer Is a Consequence of Mutation and Natural Selection Within the Population of Cells That Form the Body |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Cancer Requires an Accumulation of Mutations |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
|
|
621 | (7) |
|
Programmed Cell Movements Create the Animal Body Plan |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
Cells Switch On Different Sets of Genes According to Their Position and Their History |
|
|
622 | (2) |
|
Diffusible Signals Can Provide Cells with Positional Information |
|
|
624 | (2) |
|
Studies in Drosophila Have Given a Key to Vertebrate Development |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
Similar Genes Are Used Throughout the Animal Kingdom to Give Cells an Internal Record of Their Position |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
|
|
629 | |
Other versions by this Author
